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Chicken from Farm to Table
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What's for dinner tonight? There's a good chance it's chicken — now the number one species consumed by Americans.
Interest in the safe handling and cooking of chicken is reflected in the thousands of calls to the USDA Meat and Poultry Hotline.
The following information answers many of the questions these callers have asked about chicken.
History & Definitions
The chicken is a descendant of the Southeast Asian red jungle fowl, first domesticated in India
around 2000 B.C. Most of the birds raised for meat in America today are from the Cornish
(a British breed) and the White Rock (a breed developed in New England). Broiler-fryers, roasters,
stewing/baking hens, capons, and Rock Cornish hens are all chickens. The following are definitions
for these:
- Broiler-fryer – a young, tender chicken; about 7 weeks old; weighs 2 1/2 to 4 1/2 pounds when eviscerated. Cook by any method.
- Rock Cornish Game Hen – a small broiler-fryer; weighs between 1 and 2 pounds. Usually stuffed and roasted whole.
- Roaster – an older chicken; about 3 to 5 months old; weighs 5 to 7 pounds. It yields more meat per pound than a broiler-fryer. Usually roasted whole.
- Capon – male chickens; about 16 weeks to 8 months old; surgically unsexed. They weigh about 4 to 7 pounds and have generous quantities of tender, light meat. Usually roasted.
- Stewing/Baking Hen – a mature laying hen; 10 months to 1 1/2 years old. Since the meat is less tender than young chickens, it's best when used in moist cooking, such as stewing.
- Cock or rooster – a mature male chicken with coarse skin and tough, dark meat. Requires long, moist cooking.
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Chicken Inspection
All chickens found in retail stores are either inspected by USDA or by State systems which have standards equivalent to the Federal
government. Each chicken and its internal organs are inspected for signs of disease. The "Inspected for wholesomeness by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture" seal ensures that the chicken is free from visible signs of disease.
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Chicken Grading
Inspection is mandatory, but grading is voluntary. Chickens are graded according to the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service's
regulations and standards for meatiness, appearance, and freedom from defects. Grade A chickens have
plump, meaty bodies and clean skin, free of bruises, broken bones, feathers, cuts, and discoloration.
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Fresh or Frozen
The term fresh on a poultry label refers to any raw poultry product that has never been held
below 26 °F (-3.3 C). Raw poultry held at 0 °F (-17.8 °C) or below must be labeled
frozen or previously frozen. No specific labeling is required on raw poultry
stored at temperatures between 0 and 25 °F (-17.8 °C and -3.9 °C).
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Dating of Chicken Products
Product dating is not required by Federal regulations, but many stores and processors voluntarily
date packages of chicken or chicken products. If a calendar date is shown, there must be a phrase
immediately adjacent to the date that explains the meaning of that date, such as sell by or use before.
The use-by date is for quality assurance; after the date, peak quality begins to lessen, but the
product may still be used. It's always best to buy a product before the date expires. If a use-by date
expires while the chicken is frozen, the food can still be used because foods kept frozen continuously
are safe indefinitely.
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Hormones & Antibiotics
No hormones are used in the raising of chickens.
Antibiotics may be used to prevent disease and increase feed efficiency. Before the bird can be
slaughtered, a "withdrawal" period is required from the time antibiotics are administered.
This ensures that no residues are present in the bird's system. FSIS randomly samples poultry at
slaughter and tests for residues. Data from this monitoring program have shown a very low percentage
of residue violations.
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Additives
Additives are not allowed on fresh chicken. However, if chicken is processed, additives such as MSG,
salt, or sodium erythorbate may be added but must be listed on the label.
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Foodborne Organisms Associated with Chicken
As on any perishable meat, fish, or poultry, bacteria can be found on raw or undercooked chicken.
They multiply rapidly at temperatures between 40 and 140 °F (4.4 and 60 °C) — (out of refrigeration and
before thorough cooking occurs). Freezing doesn't kill bacteria, but they are destroyed by thorough
cooking.
USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) has a zero tolerance for certain pathogens,
including Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes, in cooked and ready-to-eat products,
such as chicken franks or lunch meat, that can be eaten without further cooking.
Most foodborne illness outbreaks are a result of contamination from food handlers. Sanitary food
handling and proper cooking and refrigeration should prevent foodborne illnesses.
Bacteria must be consumed on food to cause foodborne illness. They cannot enter the body through a skin
cut. However, raw poultry must be handled carefully to prevent cross-contamination. This can occur if
raw poultry or its juices come in contact with cooked food or foods that will be eaten raw, such as
salad. An example of this is using a cutting board to chop raw chicken and then using the same board
to chop tomatoes without washing the board first.
Following are some bacteria associated with chicken:
- Salmonella Enteritidis may be found in the intestinal tracts of livestock, poultry,
dogs, cats, and other warm-blooded animals. This strain is only 1 of about 2,000 kinds of Salmonella
bacteria; it is often associated with poultry and shell eggs. FSIS requires poultry establishments
to meet Salmonella performance standards as a means of verifying that production systems
are effective in controlling contamination by this pathogenic organism. Agency inspection personnel
conduct Salmonella testing in poultry establishments to verify compliance with the
Salmonella standard.
- Staphylococcus aureus can be carried on human hands, in nasal passages, or in throats.
The bacteria are found in foods made by hand and then improperly refrigerated, such as chicken salad.
- Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common causes of diarrheal illness in humans.
Preventing cross-contamination and using proper cooking methods reduces infection by this bacterium.
As with Salmonella, FSIS requires poultry establishments to meet Campylobacter
performance standards and conducts in-plant testing to verify compliance.
- Listeria monocytogenes was recognized as causing human foodborne illness in 1981.
It is destroyed by cooking, but a cooked product can be contaminated by improper handling or poor
sanitary practices in food preparation and storage areas. The risk from L. monocytogenes
can increase when it has the opportunity to grow on a food product in storage, so take care to
observe "keep refrigerated" and "use-by" dates on labels. FSIS requires
establishments producing ready-to-eat (RTE) poultry products, such as deli meats and chicken dogs,
to maintain a system of controls that destroy or suppress the growth of the organism. FSIS verifies
that controls are in place and effective at controlling the organism.
- Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a type of bacteria that normally live in the
intestines of animals and humans. There are hundreds of different kinds, or strains, of E. coli,
some of which can be harmful, but most are not. Animal meats may become contaminated with this
bacterium during the slaughter process.
- The presence of E. coli, although an indicator organism for fecal matter, does not
mean the product is, in fact, contaminated by feces. E. coli that is present in feathers or
environmental contaminants, like dust, can also contaminate a poultry carcass. As part of poultry
inspection procedures, FSIS enforces a "zero tolerance" standard for visible fecal material on
poultry carcasses. It also requires slaughter establishments to perform microbiological testing
for generic E. coli on carcasses to verify that slaughter processes are under control
for the prevention and removal of fecal contamination.
Safe food handling and proper cooking will help keep you and your family safe from foodborne bacteria.
Follow the four food safety steps of USDA's Food Safe Families campaign.
Clean: Wash hands and surfaces often.
Separate: Separate raw meats and poultry from other foods.
Cook: Cook all poultry to 165 °F (73.9 °C).
Chill: Refrigerate promptly.
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Rinsing or Soaking Chicken
Washing raw poultry before cooking it is not recommended. Bacteria in raw meat and poultry juices
can be spread to other foods, utensils, and surfaces. This is called cross-contamination. Rinsing
or soaking chicken does not destroy bacteria. Only cooking will destroy any bacteria that might be
present on fresh chicken.
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Liquid in Package
Many people think the pink liquid in packaged fresh chicken is blood; however, it is mostly water
which was absorbed by the chicken during the chilling process. Blood is removed from poultry during
slaughter and only a small amount remains in the muscle tissue. An improperly bled chicken has cherry
red skin and is condemned at the plant.
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How to Handle Chicken Safely
- Fresh Chicken: Chicken is kept cold during distribution to retail stores to
prevent the growth of bacteria and to increase its shelf life. Chicken should feel cold to the
touch when purchased. Select fresh chicken just before checking out at the register. Put packages
of chicken in disposable plastic bags (if available) to contain any leakage which could
cross-contaminate cooked foods or produce. Make the grocery store your last stop before going home.
At home, immediately place chicken in a refrigerator that maintains a temperature of 40 °F (4.4 °C)
or below. Use it within 1 or 2 days, or freeze it at 0 °F (-17.8 °C). If kept frozen continuously,
it will be safe indefinitely.
Chicken may be frozen in its original packaging or repackaged. If freezing chicken longer than
2 months, overwrap the porous store plastic packages with airtight heavy-duty foil, plastic wrap,
or freezer paper, or place the package inside a freezer bag. Use these materials or airtight
freezer containers to freeze the chicken from opened packages or repackage family packs of chicken
into smaller amounts.
Proper wrapping prevents "freezer burn," which appears as grayish-brown leathery spots
and is caused by air reaching the surface of food. Cut freezer-burned portions away either before
or after cooking the chicken. Heavily freezer-burned products may have to be discarded because
they may be too dry or tasteless.
- Ready-Prepared Chicken: When purchasing fully cooked rotisserie or fast food
chicken, be sure it is hot at the time of purchase. Use it within 2 hours or cut it into several
pieces and refrigerate in shallow, covered containers. Eat within 3 to 4 days, either cold or
reheated to 165 °F (73.9 °C). It is safe to freeze ready-prepared chicken. For best quality, flavor,
and texture, use it within 4 months.
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Safe Thawing
FSIS recommends three ways to thaw chicken: in the refrigerator, in cold water, and in the microwave.
Never thaw chicken on the counter or in other locations. It's best to plan ahead for slow, safe
thawing in the refrigerator. Boneless chicken breasts, bone-in parts, and whole chickens may take
1 to 2 days or longer to thaw. Once the raw chicken thaws, it can be kept in the refrigerator an
additional day or two before cooking. During this time, if chicken thawed in the refrigerator is
not used, it can safely be refrozen without cooking it first.
Chicken may be thawed in cold water in its airtight packaging or in a leak-proof bag. Submerge the
bird or cut-up parts in cold water, changing the water every 30 minutes to be sure it stays cold.
A whole (3- to 4-pound) broiler-fryer or package of parts should thaw in 2 to 3 hours. A 1-pound
package of boneless breasts will thaw in an hour or less. Cook immediately after thawing.
Chicken that was thawed in the microwave should be cooked immediately after thawing because some
areas of the food may become warm and begin to cook during microwaving. Holding partially cooked
food is not recommended because any bacteria present wouldn't have been destroyed. Foods defrosted
in the microwave or by the cold water method should be cooked before refreezing.
Do not cook frozen chicken in a slow cooker or in the microwave; thaw it before cooking. However,
chicken can be cooked from the frozen state in the oven or on the stove. The cooking time may be
about 50 percent longer.
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Safe Cooking
FSIS recommends cooking whole chicken to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F (73.9 °C)
as measured with a food thermometer. Check the internal temperature in the innermost part of the
thigh and wing and the thickest part of the breast. For reasons of personal preference, consumers
may choose to cook poultry to higher temperatures.
For approximate cooking times to use in meal planning, see the following chart compiled from various
resources.
APPROXIMATE CHICKEN COOKING TIMES
| Approximate
Chicken Cooking Times |
| Type of Chicken
|
Weight |
Roasting
350 °F (176.7
°C) |
Simmering |
Grilling |
| Whole broiler-fryer* |
3 to 4 lbs. |
1 1/4 to 1 1/2 hrs. |
60 to 75 min. |
60 to 75 min.** |
| Whole roasting hen* |
5 to 7 lbs. |
2 to 2 1/4 hrs. |
1 3/4 to 2 hrs. |
18 to 25 min./lb.** |
| Whole capon* |
4 to 8 lbs. |
2 to 3 hrs. |
Not suitable |
15-20 min./lb.** |
| Whole Cornish hens* |
18 to 24 oz. |
50 to 60 min. |
35 to 40 min. |
45 to 55 min.** |
| Breast halves, bone-in |
6 to 8 oz. |
30 to 40 min. |
35 to 45 min. |
10 to 15 min./side |
| Breast halves, boneless |
4 oz. |
20 to 30 min. |
25 to 30 min. |
6 to 8 min./side |
| Legs or thighs |
4 to 8 oz. |
40 to 50 min. |
40 to 50 min. |
10 to 15 min./side |
| Drumsticks |
4 oz. |
35 to 45 min. |
40 to 50 min. |
8 to 12 min./side |
| Wings or wingettes |
2 to 3 oz. |
30 to 40 min. |
35 to 45 min. |
8 to 12 min./side |
* Unstuffed. If stuffed, add an additional 15 to 30 minutes.
** Indirect method using drip pan.
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Microwave Directions:
- Microwave on medium-high (70 percent power): whole chicken, 9 to 10 minutes per pound;
bone-in parts and Cornish hens, 8 to 9 minutes per pound; boneless breasts halves, 6 to 8 minutes per pound.
- Place whole chicken in an oven cooking bag or in a covered microwavable pot.
- Do not microwave a stuffed chicken. Food cooks so quickly in a microwave oven that the
stuffing might not have enough time to reach the safe minimum internal temperature needed to
destroy harmful bacteria.
- When microwaving parts, arrange in a dish or on a rack so thick parts are toward the outside
of dish and thin or bony parts are in the center.
- For boneless breast halves, place in a dish with 1/4 cup water; cover with plastic wrap.
- Allow 10 minutes standing time for bone-in chicken; 5 minutes for a boneless breast.
- The USDA recommends cooking whole poultry to a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F
(73.9 °C) as measured using a food thermometer. Check the internal temperature in the innermost
part of the thigh and wing and the thickest part of the breast. When cooking pieces, breasts,
drumsticks, thighs, and wings should be cooked until they reach a safe minimum internal
temperature of 165 °F (73.9 °C). For reasons of personal preference, consumers may choose to
cook poultry to higher temperatures.
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Stuffed Chicken
The Hotline does not recommend buying a whole, uncooked chicken stuffed at the grocery store because
of the highly perishable nature of a previously stuffed item. Consumers should not pre-stuff whole
chicken to cook at a later time. Chicken can be stuffed immediately before cooking. Some USDA-inspected
frozen stuffed whole poultry MUST be cooked from the frozen state to ensure a safely cooked product.
Follow preparation directions on the label.
To stuff a whole chicken at home, cook any raw meat, poultry, or shellfish ingredients for the stuffing
to reduce the risk of foodborne illness from bacteria that may be found in raw ingredients. The wet
ingredients for stuffing can be prepared ahead of time and refrigerated. However, do not mix wet and
dry ingredients until just before spooning the stuffing mixture into the chicken cavity. Immediately
cook the stuffed, raw chicken in an oven set no lower than 325 °F (162.8 °C).
Do not microwave a stuffed chicken. Food cooks so quickly in a microwave oven that the stuffing might
not have enough time to reach the safe minimum internal temperature needed to destroy harmful bacteria.
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Marinating
Chicken may be marinated in the refrigerator for up to 2 days. Boil used marinade before brushing
it on cooked chicken. Discard any uncooked leftover marinade.
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Partial Cooking
Never brown or partially cook chicken to refrigerate and finish cooking later because any bacteria
present wouldn't have been destroyed. It is safe to partially precook or microwave chicken immediately
before transferring it to the hot grill to finish cooking.
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Color of Skin
Chicken skin color varies from cream-colored to yellow. Skin color is a result of the type of feed
eaten by the chicken, not a measure of nutritional value, flavor, tenderness, or fat content.
Color preferences vary in different sections of the country, so growers use the type of feed which
produces the desired color.
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Dark Bones
Darkening around bones occurs primarily in young broiler-fryers. Since their bones have not calcified
completely, pigment from the bone marrow can seep through the porous bones. Freezing can also
contribute to this seepage. When the chicken is cooked, the pigment turns dark. It's perfectly safe
to eat chicken meat that turns dark during cooking.
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Pink Meat
The color of cooked chicken is not a sign of its safety. Only by using a food thermometer can one
accurately determine that chicken has reached a safe minimum internal temperature of 165 °F (73.9 °C)
throughout. The pink color in safely cooked chicken may be due to the hemoglobin in tissues which can
form a heat-stable color. Smoking or grilling may also cause this reaction, which occurs more in young
birds.
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Storage Times
Product dates aren't a guide for the safe use of a product or how long can the consumer store the food
and still use it at top quality. Instead, follow these tips:
- Purchase the product before the date expires.
- Follow handling recommendations on the product.
- Keep chicken in its package until it's ready to be used.
- Freeze chicken in its original packaging; overwrap or re-wrap
it according to directions in the above section, "How to Handle
Chicken Safely".
| Home Storage of Chicken Products |
| Product |
Refrigerator
40 °F (4.4 °C) or below |
Freezer
0 °F (-17.8 °C) or below |
| Fresh Chicken, whole |
1 to 2 days |
1 year |
| Fresh Chicken, parts |
1 to 2 days |
9 months |
| Giblets or Ground Chicken |
1 to 2 days |
3 to 4 months |
| Cooked Chicken, Leftover |
3 to 4 days |
4 months |
| Chicken Broth or Gravy |
3 to 4 days |
2 to 3 months |
| Cooked Chicken Casseroles, Dishes or Soup |
3 to 4 days |
4 to 6 months |
| Cooked Chicken Pieces, covered with broth or gravy |
3 to 4 days |
6 months |
| Cooked Chicken Nuggets, Patties |
3 to 4 days |
1 to 3 months |
| Fried Chicken |
3 to 4 days |
4 months |
| Take-Out Convenience Chicken (Rotisserie, Fried, etc.) |
3 to 4 days |
4 months |
| Restaurant Chicken Leftovers, brought immediately home in a "Doggy Bag" |
3 to 4 days |
4 months |
| Store-cooked Chicken Dinner including gravy |
3 to 4 days |
2 to 3 months |
| Chicken Salad |
3 to 5 days |
Do not freeze if it contains mayonnaise |
| Deli-sliced Chicken Luncheon Meat |
3 to 5 days |
1 to 2 months |
| Chicken Luncheon Meat, sealed in package |
2 weeks (but no longer than 1 week after a "sell-by" date) |
1 to 2 months |
| Chicken Luncheon Meat, after opening |
3 to 5 days |
1 to 2 months |
| Vacuum-packed Dinners, Commercial brand with USDA seal |
Unopened 2 weeks; Opened 3 to 4 days |
1 to 2 months |
| Chicken Hotdogs, unopened |
2 weeks (but no longer than 1 week after a "sell-by" date) |
1 to 2 months |
| Chicken Hotdogs, after opening |
1 week |
1 to 2 months |
| Canned Chicken Products |
2 to 5 years in pantry |
Do not freeze in can. |
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Color of Giblets
Giblet color can vary, especially in the liver, from mahogany to yellow. The type of feed, the
chicken's metabolism, and its breed can account for the variation in color. If the liver is green,
do not eat it. This is due to bile retention. However, the chicken meat should be safe to eat.
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Fatty Deposits
Chickens may seem to have more fatty deposits or contain a larger "fat pad" than in the
past. This is because broiler-fryer chickens have been bred to grow very rapidly to supply the
demand for more chicken. Feed that is not converted into muscle tissue (meat) is metabolized
into fat. However, the fat is not "marbled" into the meat as with beef or other red
meat and can be easily removed. Geneticists are researching ways to eliminate the excess fat.
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Trisodium Phosphate
Food-grade trisodium phosphate (TSP) is among several antimicrobial agents that have been
approved by FDA. It is "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) and has been safely used
for years, particularly in processed cheese. TSP is used in poultry slaughter as an antimicrobial
agent for raw poultry carcasses. When immersed in and/or sprayed in a dilute solution on chickens,
it can significantly reduce bacteria levels.
To read about other antimicrobials, see that section in the document "Safe and Suitable
Ingredients Used in the Production of Meat, Poultry, And Egg Products" at
http://www.fsis.usda.gov/OPPDE/rdad/FSISDirectives/
7120.1.pdf.
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Irradiation of Poultry
In 1992, the USDA approved a rule to permit the irradiation of raw, fresh, or frozen packaged
poultry to control certain common bacteria on raw poultry that can cause illness when poultry is
undercooked or otherwise mishandled. Irradiation at 1.5 to 3.0 kilo Gray, the smallest, most
practical "dose," would eliminate more than 99 percent of Salmonellae organisms on the treated poultry.
Packages of irradiated chicken are easily recognizable at the store because they must carry the
international radura symbol along with the statement, "treated with irradiation"
or "treated by irradiation."
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Last Modified:
July 20, 2012 |
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