A Guide to Training and Mentoring
in the Intramural Research Program at NIH
- Preface
The NIH’s mission is to improve the health of the public
through support of biomedical research and the training of
biomedical scientists. The NIH Intramural Program has a long
tradition of training outstanding investigators who have become
leaders throughout the world. Training of fellows has rested
heavily on the quality of research and mentoring in individual NIH
laboratories, but until recently there has been no formal guide to
emphasize the training role of the NIH and encourage outstanding
mentoring in our laboratories and clinics.
The following Guide grew out of my sense that research training at
NIH--and undoubtedly elsewhere--would benefit from a more explicit
set of expectations for the predoctoral and postdoctoral research
training experience. This sentiment, in turn, sprang from a
movement by NIH fellows themselves seeking improved mentoring.
This movement was complemented by a project of the National
Academy of Sciences (See Directory
of Useful Web Sites) and gained
momentum from an editorial outlining my expectations for
postdoctoral training at NIH (The
NIH Catalyst, Volume 5, Issue 6, p.
2).
I am grateful to Joan Schwartz, Chair of the NIH Committee on
Scientific Conduct and Ethics, for her leadership in
organizing the effort to write this Guide, to Alan Schechter,
Richard Asofsky, Christy Ludlow and Carol Thiele for their major
contributions to drafting this document, and to the Committee for
its hard work in bringing this Guide to fruition. I look forward
to seeing A Guide to Training and Mentoring in the
Intramural Research Program at NIH take its place beside
the Guidelines
for the Conduct of Research in the Intramural Research Program at
NIH as complementary
statements of our standards of training, ethics, and conduct for
NIH scientists.
Michael M. Gottesman, M.D.
Deputy Director for Intramural Research, NIH
- Introduction
Research conducted by established investigators together with
scientists-in-training is part of the complex pattern of pre- and
postdoctoral training that has evolved in much of science over the
last 50 years. Scientists who work with trainees on research
projects, and the institutions that support them, are responsible
for ensuring that their fellows receive the best possible training
in how to conduct research, as well as how to develop and achieve
career goals, throughout the training period. The fulfillment of
this responsibility as part of research training is known as
mentoring and is the subject of this Guide. The NIH,
like other institutions, has predoctoral trainees, as well as many
fellows from other countries. These trainees will have certain
unique requirements that should be considered. For example,
postbaccalaureate fellows may require guidance relative to choices
for graduate/medical school. Most foreign fellows return to their
country of origin, so their needs with respect to career planning
will differ from those of fellows looking for jobs in this
country. In all cases, mentoring should be adapted to the needs of
each individual trainee.
This booklet outlines the broad principles on which training
programs should be based, sets forth criteria for good mentoring,
and complements the Guidelines
for the Conduct of Research in the Intramural Research Program at
NIH. No attempt has been
made to include listings of all of the resources available to
mentors and trainees at NIH, since guides to these resources, such
as the recently published NIH
Handbook for Postdoctoral Fellows (Office
of Education, Office of the Director, NIH) and the
NIH Web
homepage, are available
elsewhere (See Directory
of Useful Web Sites).
- Supervisors,
Mentors, and Trainees
Research training is a complex process starting with formal
courses in undergraduate and graduate years, carrying through to
personal interactions with faculty during early research projects,
and on to continuing education at meetings and courses throughout
one's career. It is the responsibility of each training
institution to establish and optimize learning opportunities, but
ultimately it is up to each trainee to tailor his or her own
education to meet career goals.
The component of training that is designated as mentoring (after
Mentor, Odysseus' family's sage counselor in Greek mythology) has
received increasing attention in recent years. A mentor is a
person who has achieved career success and counsels and guides
another for the purpose of helping him or her achieve like
success. Research supervisors should always be mentors; they have
the responsibility to discuss with and advise a trainee on aspects
of his or her work and professional development. The trainee may
find additional mentors informally--or the training institution
may designate them. They are very important in the overall
experience of the trainee and may contribute to research
productivity as well. Supporting these training and mentoring
relationships at the NIH are the Section, the Laboratory (or
Branch), the individual Institutes and Centers, and the Office of
Intramural Research, in the Office of the Director, NIH.
Training in the skills of mentorship itself is important,
especially for those who plan careers in research or teaching.
Postdoctoral trainees should learn to train and guide others, for
example, by working with more junior individuals, supervising
technical staff, or training students. The characteristics
considered important by a fellow in selecting a supervisor and
other mentors--interest in contributing to the career development
of another scientist, research accomplishments, professional
networking, accessibility, and past success cultivating the
professional development of fellows--are characteristics that
trainees may eventually strive to emulate in their own
careers.
Although this Section has emphasized the responsibilities of
supervisors and others in research institutions to provide
mentoring to trainees to facilitate their professional
development, trainees also have responsibilities. Collaborative
research frequently requires productive interactions among fellows
themselves as well as recognition of their roles as part of a team
effort. In addition, fellows must have a commitment to the work of
the laboratory and Institute and to the achievement of their
goals. They cannot be passive participants in their training; they
should appropriately make known their satisfactions,
dissatisfactions, and needs clearly and often.
- Training
in Scientific Investigation
A key to successful research training is identifying a
first-rate research project. Supervisors should suggest projects
that are scientifically innovative, important, and challenging,
and which are also feasible based on the fellow's knowledge and
abilities and the resources available for the work. Research
projects that have high potential to open new fields of
investigation or make previously unrecognized connections among
fields are most desirable, but may be less feasible. The
hypotheses underlying all projects should be explicitly and
clearly formulated. Fellows should also understand both the
potential significance and the possible limitations of their work.
In the beginning, supervisors should monitor the work closely to
ensure that fellows learn and use appropriate methods, keep good
records, and examine, analyze, and interpret data frequently and
appropriately. In all cases, training should allow the fellow to
take on an increasingly independent role in identifying research
problems, formulating hypotheses, designing and conducting
experiments, and presenting results to other scientists. At the
outset, the major research goals of trainees and their supervisors
should be congruent. As the fellow matures and prepares to define
a scientific niche, a good mentor knows when to step back and
allow more independence.
The trainee should review the relevant scientific literature at
the inception of the project and stay abreast of new results as
the work progresses. Fellows should know or learn how to explore
and evaluate the published information in their field, using the
latest electronic search techniques for scientific literature and
databases such as those produced by the National
Library of Medicine and various
private organizations. Trainees should take advantage of
opportunities to read critically and discuss published papers
related to their work, both one-on-one with more senior staff and
in group settings such as journal clubs. They should also learn to
critically review pre-publication work with their supervisors:
this could include reviewing articles submitted to journals for
publication.
Complementing the published literature is the NIH’s vast menu
of research seminars, including individual laboratory seminars,
Interest
Group meetings, NIH
Director's Wednesday
Afternoon and
Friday
lectures, and on-campus meetings
of one or several days duration, including the annual
NIH
Research Festival. Fellows
should attend seminars within, but also outside, their field of
study to develop the interdisciplinary perspective which makes for
the best science. Mentors should recommend seminars that are
likely to be valuable and encourage trainees to attend.
Participation in regional and national meetings is important for
postdoctoral fellows as their work progresses. In contrast,
most postbaccalaureate fellows spend only one year at NIH and may
not have advanced a project sufficiently for presentation at a
meeting. Formal courses, such as those offered by the
Foundation
for Advanced Education in the Sciences at
NIH, will broaden the
perspectives and skills of scientists throughout their careers. In
addition, more specialized courses, such as those offered by the
Center
for Information Technology, the
National
Library of Medicine, and
the NIH Library, as well as by government and
non-government organizations and research institutions, may
provide more technical resources important for conducting
research.
- Training
in Communication
Communication skills are essential to a successful research
scientist. A project is not complete until the results have been
reported to the scientific community, especially in written form.
Thus, fellows must be trained in the art of communicating the
results and conclusions of their research, orally and in writing.
Skill in oral presentations can be enhanced by giving fellows the
chance to rehearse before a small group and by training in the
preparation and use of visual aids such as graphic and text
slides. Each trainee should have the opportunity to present his or
her work in group or laboratory seminars one or more times each
year. Informal local presentations at early and preliminary stages
of projects are especially important. It is also important to
learn how to tailor a presentation to a specific audience, whether
it be scientific peers, prospective employers, students, or the
public. Improving their use of the English language is
particularly important for those fellows for whom English is not
their native language and who expect to continue in careers which
will require publications and seminars in English.
Completed work is presented most appropriately to larger and more
diverse audiences, for example, at regional and national meetings.
Presentations at meetings can contribute to the fellow's
reputation, give him or her a broader view of research in the
field, and permit introductions to senior colleagues and peers
from other institutions. It also allows critical feedback to both
the junior and senior investigator on their research project.
Thus, sponsorship and funds should be provided for
postdoctoral trainees to travel to conferences to
make poster or oral presentations.
Peer-reviewed publication of full research articles--including
detailed descriptions of the purpose of the research, methods
used, important results, interpretations, and relevant literature
citations--is the definitive step in bringing a research project
to fruition. Such articles form the backbone of scientific
knowledge, and their authorship is critical in the developing
careers of junior investigators. Journals differ in their target
audiences, range of research coverage, and "impact factor" or
citation rate. Fellows should become familiar with these
differences by reading articles published in various journals and
by consulting with senior colleagues. Authors should have other
fellows and more senior investigators read and comment on drafts
of manuscripts before submitting them to the selected journal.
Approval of manuscripts and abstracts through publication
clearance procedures by the individual Laboratories and
Institutes, prior to or at the time of submission, is required.
All co-authors on a paper should discuss responses to the
journal's reviews and editorial judgments before resubmitting it.
Joint preparation of review articles can be an important means to
help a trainee develop a broader perspective of the field, as well
as enhance his or her professional recognition.
The names of the authors, and the order in which they are listed,
convey information about the relative contributions of
collaborators--this should be discussed with all participants on a
project. Guidelines for authorship should be reviewed at the
outset and the contributions of all individuals involved in the
project should be periodically assessed. These discussions will
help trainees understand the process and the complex issues
involved in determining authorship. (See Guidelines
for the Conduct of Research in the Intramural Research Program at
NIH for a discussion of
publication practices and authorship issues.)
Another important form of research communication is the
presentation of research projects to outside review groups. For
these presentations, succinct and clear statements of the
significance, goals, and hypotheses to be tested in the research
project are especially critical for successful communication to
reviewers in the specific discipline as well as in related fields.
In the intramural program, research review involves written and
oral presentations by principal investigators to the individual
Institute and Center Boards of Scientific Counselors.
Fellows should be encouraged to participate in the preparation of
these presentations. For NIH extramural programs, project review
is based on written grant or contract applications.
- Training
in Personal Interactions
Learning negotiation, persuasion, and diplomatic skills is
important for a scientist. These skills are called into play in
convincing others of the importance of one's ideas, in getting
credit for one's contributions, and in navigating administrative
channels. Obtaining these skills is a critical part of a
scientist’s training and is generally acquired by watching
the behavior of others. Diplomacy is essential for preserving
relationships that may be important for a fellow's career
development, and a key step is learning how to cooperate with the
very people whose help will be needed to achieve goals.
Networking is the process of forming contacts or exchanging
information with individuals to advance scientific or career
goals. Establishment of ties to groups of scientists with similar
interests can facilitate refinement of scientific ideas, exchange
of reagents, development of new collaborations, and exchange of
information about job opportunities. Networking starts at the
earliest stages of a career and develops continually thereafter.
Research supervisors and mentors often are the first points of
contact in the introduction of a trainee to scientific colleagues.
Fellows should also develop good working relationships with other
researchers in the laboratory. Frequently laboratories provide an
opportunity for trainees to meet as a group or individually with
visiting scientists to discuss research interests. Fellows should
seize these networking opportunities and others that abound at
NIH, including trans-Institute
Interest Groups and regular
journal clubs. Joining national professional societies is another
good way to broaden scientific contacts.
Finally, without leaving the office it is possible to network on
the Internet-- internetworking! Over the past decade, e-mail has
made it easy for scientists to ask their colleagues questions or
to request reagents. It is likely that other forms of electronic
communication, such as meetings, workshops, and electronic
publications, will continue to expand opportunities in the future
for convenient networking and data exchange.
- Career
Planning
Almost as soon as a fellow arrives at NIH for postdoctoral
training, he or she should start to consider career pathways.
Training at NIH will involve research in some type of basic,
clinical, or epidemiological project. The possibilities for future
career paths are more diverse than ever before, including research
careers, academic positions which will encompass research and/or
teaching, employment in industry, and careers in science
administration, science writing, or biomedical law. Many of
today’s research jobs involve collaborative work as part of a
team rather than the independence of an academic position.
Each fellow should consider these different options in
terms of what type of work he or she prefers. To help fellows
learn about various career options, NIH sponsors programs on
professional development, including non-laboratory career
pathways. Opportunities are sometimes available at NIH for senior
postdoctoral fellows to spend a few months in a science policy or
communications office on campus; however, this option depends on
the ability and willingness of the supervisor or Institute to
support this exploration of non-laboratory career areas. All
supervisors should encourage fellows to participate in workshops
on diverse career options, as well as others relevant to their
particular career plans. Thus, every postdoctoral fellow should
attend sessions on preparation of a resume or job interviewing
techniques, whereas only those planning on independent academic
positions will be interested in sessions on grant writing.
Supervisors should provide their own personal input, by reviewing
fellows’ CVs and resumes before they apply for jobs. As a
fellow decides upon a career path, he or she should start the
process of career networking, including identifying contacts,
gathering information relative to the chosen path, and learning
about the structural or administrative requirements for pursuing
that particular career. These critical steps can easily be
overlooked if a fellow is focused exclusively on his or her
research.
Supervisors and mentors have substantial responsibilities in
assisting fellows as they make career choices. Particularly useful
would be yearly evaluations, providing assessments of both
research progress and career plans, for each fellow. Most
important is to offer a frank assessment to the fellow of his or
her potential to become an independent researcher or to suggest
other career possibilities. Mentors other than supervisors may
play important roles at this time as independent career advisors
if they know the fellow well enough to evaluate strengths and
weaknesses with respect to various career choices. Other functions
that mentors can perform include reviewing and critiquing a
fellow’s CV, notifying the fellow of job openings, and
encouraging the fellow to consider diverse career options.
Predoctoral fellows, for the most part, are planning on graduate
or medical school and will be looking for advice on preparation of
applications and choice of schools.
As an institution, the NIH promotes career planning by fellows in
two distinct areas. The first includes the activities that enhance
a fellow's preparation for job hunting, such as the various
seminars and workshops noted above. The Graduate
School of the Foundation for Advanced Education in the Sciences at
NIH actively recruits fellows to
design and teach courses, thereby offering them the opportunity to
enhance their teaching skills, and to see whether they enjoy
teaching. The second area of NIH’s institutional commitment
is in listings of available jobs, as well as training in applying
for research grants that may be necessary for jobs in academia.
The NIH
Office of Education maintains a
list of scientific job opportunities, both within NIH and outside,
on its home page on the Web, and sponsors a job fair in
association with the annual NIH
Research Festival.
- Training
in Scientific Responsibility
Supervisors, mentors, and training institutions must ensure
that trainees learn the legal and ethical aspects of conducting
research. This educational process occurs through both formal and
informal mechanisms. Distribution and discussion of the
Guidelines
for the Conduct of Research in the Intramural Research Program at
NIH, as well as completion
of the computer-based module on Human Subjects Research, are now
required of all staff members, including trainees. All employees
and trainees are also subject to the federal Standards of Conduct
for Employees of the Executive Branch. Clinical investigators have
to satisfy requirements of the Food
and Drug Administration, the
Federal
Common Rule for Human Subjects
Protection, Institutional
Review Boards, and
Privacy
Act and other confidentiality
requirements in getting approval for their protocols. Various
regulations governing the care and use of laboratory animals, and
the handling and disposal of radioactive materials, chemicals, or
hazardous biologicals in research, as well as rules pertaining to
patents and technology transfer, may also apply to individual
research projects. Supervisors should convey the relevant rules
and regulations to trainees upon their arrival at NIH, ensure that
they have taken all required courses, and provide guidance as
trainees learn to apply these regulations and policies.
In addition, trainees must develop a sense of responsibility for
the use of public resources that are made available to them.
Consideration of the costs of equipment, supplies, personnel, and
space should be part of the budgeting of each project. Supervisors
and trainees should explicitly discuss these constraints so that
fellows may begin to understand the limits, opportunities, and
trade-offs that must be weighed within a finite budget.
Trainees also need to develop an understanding of the behaviors
that are considered ethical and unethical within the scientific
community. These standards, discussed in the Guidelines
for the Conduct of Research in the Intramural Research Program at
NIH, are perhaps the most
important precepts which supervisors and mentors can convey to
fellows, in part by example, during their training. Fellows should
also be told about trans-NIH resources like the NIH
Ombudsman/Center for Cooperative
Resolution, the NIH Committee
on Scientific Conduct and Ethics, the Office of Equal
Opportunity, the Women Scientist Advisors, and other
places to which they may go with specific problems.
- Conclusion
The NIH is a world-renowned institution because it has been
both a major training center as well as a leader in basic,
clinical, and epidemiological investigation. As the Intramural
Research Program increasingly attracts trainees from very diverse
backgrounds with equally diverse goals, it is important that the
NIH as an institution, and NIH scientists as individuals, continue
to focus attention on training and mentoring responsibilities.
Individual laboratories, as well as the Institutes and Centers,
must continually evaluate the success of their training programs
to ensure that these are as effective and current as possible.
This Guide is one step in what must be a continual process of
self-examination, adaptation, and improvement. Our hope is that
striving to improve mentoring will keep our training programs as
excellent as our science and ensure that NIH-trained scientists
continue to be world leaders in biomedical research.
- Directory
of Useful Web Sites
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Comments
Revised: 12/20/99