A Country Study: Soviet Union (Former)

• Soviet Union (Former)
• Foreword
• Acknowledgements
• Preface
• Table A. Chronology of Important Events
• Country Profile
  • Country
  • Geography
  • Society
  • Politics and Government
  • Economy
  • Science and Technology
  • Transportation and Communications
  • National Security
• Introduction

• Chapter 1 - Historical Setting: Early History to 1917 (Zenon E. Kohut and David M. Goldfrank)
  • Emergence of the East Slavs
    • The Peoples of the East European Plain
    • The East Slavs and the Varangians
    • The Golden Age of Kiev
    • The Rise of Regional Centers
    • The Mongol Invasion
  • Muscovy
    • The Rise of Muscovy
    • The Evolution of Russian Autocracy
    • Ivan IV
    • The Time of Troubles
    • The Romanovs
    • Expansion and Westernization
  • Early Imperial Russia
    • Peter the Great and the Formation of the Russian Empire
    • Era of Palace Revolutions
    • Imperial Expansion and Maturation: Catherine II
  • Ruling the Empire
    • War and Peace, 1796-1825
    • Period of Reaction: Nicholas I, 1825-55
  • The Transformation of Imperial Russia
    • Economic Developments
    • Reforms and Their Limits, 1855-92
    • Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War, 1856-93
    • The Age of Realism in Literature
    • The Rise of Revolutionary Populism and Russian Marxism, 1855- 90
    • Serge Witte and Accelerated Industrialization, 1891-1903
    • The Development of Radical Political Parties, 1892-1904
    • Imperialism in Asia and the Russo-Japanese War, 1894-1905
  • The Last Years of Tsardom
    • The Revolution of 1905 and Counterrevolution, 1905-07
    • The Tenuous Regimes of Stolypin and Kokovstev, 1907-14
    • The Return to an Active Balkan Policy, 1906-13
    • Russia at War, 1914-16
    • The Strains of the War Effort and the Weakening of Tsarism

• Chapter 2 - Historical Setting: 1917 to 1982 (Thomas Skallerup)
  • Revolutions and Civil War
    • The February Revolution
    • The Period of Dual Power
    • The Bolshevik Revolution
    • Civil War and War Communism
  • The Era of New Economic Policy
    • Lenin's Leadership
    • Stalin's Rise to Power
    • Foreign Policy, 1921-28
    • Society and Culture in the 1920s
  • Transformation and Terror
    • Industrialization and Collectivization
    • The Period of the Purges
    • Mobilization of Society
    • Foreign Policy, 1928-39
  • War Years
    • Prelude to War
    • The Great Patriotic War
  • Reconstruction and Cold War
    • Reconstruction Years
    • The Cold War
    • Death of Stalin
  • The Khrushchev Era
    • Collective Leadership and the Rise of Khrushchev
    • Foreign Policy under Khrushchev
    • Khrushchev's Reforms and Fall
  • The Brezhnev Era
    • Collective Leadership and the Rise of Brezhnev
    • Foreign Policy of a Superpower
    • The Economy
    • Culture and the Arts
    • Death of Brezhnev

• Chapter 3 - Physical Environment and Population (David E. McClave)
  • Physical Environment
    • Global Position and Boundaries
    • Administrative-Political-Territorial Divisions
    • Topography and Drainage
    • Climate
    • Natural Resources
    • Environmental Concerns
  • Population
    • Vital Statistics
    • Age and Sex Structure
    • Mortality and Fertility
    • Urbanization
    • Migration
    • Distribution and Density
    • Marriage, Divorce, and the Family
    • Population Problems and Policies

• Chapter 4 - Nationalities and Religions (Ihor Y. Gawdiak)
  • Nationalities of the Soviet Union
    • Slavic Nationalities
      • Russians
      • Ukrainians
      • Belorussians
      • Other Slavs
    • Baltic Nationalities
      • Lithuanians
      • Latvians
      • Estonians
    • Nationalities of the Caucasus
      • Armenians
      • Georgians
      • Azerbaydzhanis
      • Other Nationalities of the Caucasus
    • Central Asian Nationalities
      • Uzbeks
      • Kazakhs
      • Kirgiz
      • Tadzhiks
      • Turkmens
    • Other Major Nationalities
      • Moldavians
      • Tatars
      • Jews
      • Chuvash
      • Bashkirs
      • Mordvins
      • Germans
      • Others
  • Religious Groups in the Soviet Union
    • Orthodox
      • Russian Orthodox Church
      • Georgian Orthodox Church
      • Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
    • Armenian Apostolic
    • Catholic
      • Roman Catholic Church
      • Ukrainian Catholic Church
    • Protestant
    • Muslim
  • Policy Toward Nationalities and Religions in Practice
  • Manifestations of National Assertiveness
    • Baltic Nationalities
    • Armenians
    • Ukrainians
    • Central Asian Nationalities
    • Russians
    • Other Nationalities

• Chapter 5 - Social Structure (Kenneth E. Nyirady)
  • Formation of Soviet Society
  • Stratification of Soviety Society
    • Socio-Occupational Groupings
      • The Elite
      • White-Collar Workers
      • Blue-Collar Workers and Manual Laborers
      • Agricultural Workers
    • Other Determinants of Social Position
      • Education
      • Party Membership
      • Nationality
    • Benefits of Social Position
      • Monetary Compensation
      • Noncash Benefits and Access to Goods and Services
      • Occupational Prestige
    • Urban-Rural Cleavage
      • Differences in Life-Styles
      • Structure of Rural Society
      • Decreasing Social Differences
  • Social Mobility
  • Social Organizations
    • Trade Unions
    • Youth Organizations
    • Sports Organizations
  • Gender and Family Roles
    • Role of Women
    • Male-Female Relationships
      • Marriage
      • Roles in Marriage
      • Divorce
      • Sex and Contraception
    • The Soviet Family
      • Evolution of the Soviet Family
      • Family Size
      • Family and Kinship Structures
      • Function of Family

• Chapter 6 - Education, Health, and Welfare (Irene M. Steckler)
  • Education
    • Philosophy and Aims
    • Control and Administration
    • Pedagogy and Planning
    • Institutions of Learning
      • Preschool
      • Secondary Education
      • Special Education
      • Higher Education
      • Teacher Training
    • Quality, Reform, and Funding
  • Health Care
    • Provision of Medical Care
    • Declining Health Care in the 1970s and 1980s
  • Welfare
    • Pension System
    • Workers' Compensation
    • Other Assistance

• Chapter 7 - The Communist Party (Stephen R. Burant)
  • Lenin's Conception of the Party
    • Theoretical Underpinnings
    • Democratic Centralism
  • Party Legitimacy
  • Central Party Institutions
    • Party Congress
    • Party Conference
    • Central Committee
    • Central Auditing Commission
    • Party Control Committee
    • Politburo
    • Secretariat
    • Commissions
    • General Secretary: Power and Authority
  • Intermediate-Level Party Organizations
    • Republic Party Organization
    • Oblast-Level Organization
    • District- and City-Level Organization
  • Primary Party Organization
  • Nomenklatura
    • The Party's Appointment Authority
    • Patron-Client Relations
  • Party Membership
    • Selection Procedures
    • Training
  • Social Composition of the Party

• Chapter 8 - Government Structure and Functions (Barry A. Zulauf, Stephen R. Burant, and James P. Nichol)
  • Constitutional Authority of Government
    • Early Soviet Constitutions
      • The 1918 Constitution
      • The 1924 Constitution
      • The 1936 Constitution
    • The 1977 Constitution
      • Amendments to the 1977 Constitution
      • Amendment Process
      • Constitutional Rights
      • Role of the Citizen
      • State Symbols
  • Central Government
    • Administrative Organs
      • Council of Ministers
      • Chairman of the Council of Ministers
      • Council of Ministers Presidium
      • Ministerial System
      • Party Control of the Ministerial Apparatus
    • Congress of People's Deputies
      • Elections to the Congress of People's Deputies
      • Deputies and Citizen Involvement
    • Supreme Soviet
      • Organs of the Supreme Soviet
      • Presidium
      • Chairman
      • Soviet of the Union and Soviet of Nationalities
      • Sessions of the Supreme Soviet
      • Commissions and Committees
      • Legislative Process
      • Party Controls
    • Control Organs
      • Court System
      • Procuracy
      • Committees of People's Control
      • Law
  • Territorial Administration
    • Republic Level
      • Legal Status
      • Government
    • Provincial and District Levels
  • Elections

• Chapter 9 - Mass Media and the Arts (Joshua Spero)
  • Politicization of the Mass Media and the Arts
    • Leninist Principles
    • Socialist Realism
  • Administration of the Mass Media and the Arts
    • The Party Role
    • The Government Role
  • The Mass Media
    • Newspapers
    • Magazines and Journals
    • Radio
    • Television and Video Cassette Recorders
    • Computers
  • The Arts
    • Literature
    • Cinema
    • Theater
    • Music
    • Painting, Sculpture, and the Graphic Arts

• Chapter 10 - Foreign Policy (James P. Nichol)
  • Ideology and Objectives
  • Foreign Policy Making and Execution
    • The Foreign Policy Makers
    • Departments of the Central Committee
    • Higher State and Government Organizations
    • The Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet
    • The Council of Ministers and Its Presidium
    • The Ministry of Foreign Affairs
  • Instruments of Influence
    • Diplomatic Relations
    • Party and State Visits Abroad
    • Friendship and Cooperation Treaties
    • Communist Parties Abroad
  • Soviet-United States Relations
  • Soviet-West European Relations
    • France
    • West Germany
    • Britain
    • Spain and Portugal
    • Scandinavia
  • Soviet-East European Relations
  • Sino-Soviet Relations
  • Soviet-Japanese Relations
  • The Soviet Union and the Third World
    • The Middle East and North Africa
      • Turkey
      • Iran and Iraq
      • Other Middle Eastern States
    • Asia
      • Afghanistan
      • India
      • Southeast Asia
    • Sub-Saharan Africa
      • Angola
      • Ethiopia
      • Mozambique
    • Central and South America
  • The Soviet Union and the Nuclear Arms Control
  • The Soviet Union and the United Nations

• Chapter 11 - Economic Structure and policy (Becky Gates)
  • Economic Structure
    • Nature of the National Economy
    • Labor
    • Retail and Wholesale Distribution System
    • Financial System
  • Economic Planning and Control
    • Planning Process
    • Reforming the Planning System
    • Tools of Control
  • Economic Policy
    • Past Priorities
    • The Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 1986-90

• Chapter 12 - Industry (Glenn E. Curtis)
  • Development of Soviet Industry
  • Industrial Resources
    • Raw Materials
    • Geographic Location Factors
    • The Territorial Production Complexes and Geographic Expansion
    • The Labor Force and Perestroika
  • Industrial Organization
    • The Complexes and the Ministries
    • The Industrial Planning System
    • Structural Reform of Industry
    • The Military-Industrial Complex
    • Industrial Research and Design
  • Machine Building and Metal Working
    • The Structure and Status of the Machine-Building and Metal- Working Complex
    • The Planning and Investment Process of the Machine-Building and Metal-Working Complex
    • The Location of the Machine-Building Industry
    • The Automotive Industry
    • The Electronics Industry
  • Metallurgy
    • Role of Metallurgy
    • Metallurgy Planning and Problems
    • Metallurgical Combine Locations and Major Producers
    • Nonferrous Metals
  • Chemicals
    • Plastics
    • Petrochemicals
    • Other Branches of the Chemical Industry
    • Chemical Planning Goals
  • Fuels
    • Fuel Resource Base
    • Oil
    • Natural Gas
    • Coal
    • Uranium
  • Power Engineering
    • Energy Planning Goals
    • The Balance among Energy Sources
    • Obstacles to Power Supply
    • Heat and Cogeneration
  • The Consumer Industry
    • Consumer Supply in the 1980s
    • The Logic and Goals of Consumer Production
    • Textiles and Wood Pulp

• Chapter 13 - Agriculture (Ronald D. Bachman)
  • Policy and Administration
    • Stalin's Legacy
    • Evolution of an Integrated Food Policy
  • Land Use
  • Production
    • Grain
    • Technical Crops
    • Forage Crops
    • Potatoes and Vegetables
    • Other Crops
    • Animal Husbandry
    • Forestry
    • Fishing
    • The Twelfth Five-Year Plan, 1986-90

• Chapter 14 - Transportation and Communications (Boris Hlynsky)
  • Railroads
    • Historical Background, 1913-39
    • World War II
    • The Postwar Period, 1946-60
    • Organization and Equipment of the Railroads
    • Passenger Operations
    • The Baykal-Amur Main Line
    • Other New Construction
    • Metropolitan Railways
  • Automotive Transport
    • Development of Automotive Transport
    • Freight Transportation by Trucks
    • Passenger Transportation
  • Inland Waterways
    • Development of Waterways
    • The Waterway System
    • River Ports and Facilities
    • Passenger Transportation
  • Merchant Marine
    • Initial Developments
    • Fleet Operations
  • Civil Aviation
    • Postwar Evolution of the Air Fleet
    • Aeroflot Operations
  • Pipelines
  • Communications

• Chapter 15 - Foreign Trade (Malinda K. Goodrich)
  • Development of the State Monopoly on Foreign Trade
  • Structure of the Foreign Trade Bureaucracy
    • Administration
    • Operation
    • Structural Reforms, 1986 to Mid-1988
  • Trade with Socialist Countries
    • The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
    • Yugoslavia
    • China
    • Cambodia, Laos, and North Korea
  • Trade with Western Industrialized Countries
    • The United States
    • Western Europe
    • Japan
    • Finland
  • Trade with Third World Countries
    • Balance of Trade
    • Composition of Trade
    • Africa, Asia, and Latin America
    • Countries of Socialist Orientation
    • Trade with the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
  • Gorbachev's Economic Reforms

• Chapter 16. Science and Techology (Cathleen A. Campbell)
  • Early Development
  • The Administration of Science and Technology
    • Policy Making
    • Planning
    • Financing
  • Science and Ideology
  • Research, Development and Production Organizations
  • Soviet Innovation: Problems and Solutions
  • Technology and Information Transfer
  • Military Research and Development
  • Training

• Chapter 17 - Military Doctrine and Strategic Concerns (Eugenia V. Osgood)
  • Marxist-Leninist Theory of War
    • War as a Continuation of Politics
    • Laws of War
  • The Party and Military Doctrine and Policy
    • Evolution of Military Doctrine
    • Military Doctrine in the Late 1980s
    • Doctrine and Weapons Programs
    • Military Policy of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
  • Military Science
    • Laws of Armed Conflict
    • Principles of Military Art
    • Military Art
      • Military Strategy
      • Nuclear Strategy in the 1950s
      • The Sokolovskii Era, l962-68
      • New Strategic Options, l968-89
      • Operational Art
      • Tactics
  • Strategic Missions of the Armed Forces
    • Threat Assessments and Force Requirements
    • Offensive and Defensive Strategic Missions
    • Strategic Offense
      • Strategic Operation in a Theater of Military Operations
      • Strategic Defense
  • Global Strategic Concerns
    • Force Projection on the Periphery
    • Military Presence in the Third World
  • Arms Control and Military Objectives
    • Strategic Arms Control
      • Averting a World War
      • Retaining a Capability to Fight and to Win
    • Objectives in Space
      • Negotiations
      • Soviet Space Weapons Development
    • Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Arms Control
      • Threat Reduction
      • Denuclearization of Europe
    • Conventional Arms Control

• Chapter 18. Armed Forces and Defense Organization (Karl Wheeler Soper)
  • Organizational Development and Combat Experience
  • Strategic Leadership of the Armed Forces
    • Defense Council
    • Main Military Council
    • Ministry of Defense
    • General Staff
  • The Armed Services
    • Strategic Rocket Forces
    • Ground Forces
      • Motorized Rifle Troops and Tank Troops
      • Rocket Troops and Artillery
      • Air Defense of Ground Forces
      • Chemical Troops, Engineer Troops, and Signal Troops
    • Air Forces
      • Strategic Air Armies
      • Frontal Aviation
      • Military Transport Aviation
    • Air Defense Forces
      • Antiaircraft Rocket Troops and Air Defense Aviation
      • Missile and Space Defenses
    • Naval Forces
      • Submarine Forces
      • Surface Forces
      • Naval Aviation
      • Naval Infantry
      • Coastal Defense Forces
    • Airborne Troops and Special-Purpose Forces
    • Rear Services
    • Civil Defense
    • Specialized and Paramilitary Forces
      • Internal Troops
      • Border Troops
  • Territorial Organization of the Armed Forces
    • Military Districts
    • Fleets, Flotillas, and Squadrons
    • Groups of Forces Stationed Abroad
  • The Party and the Armed Forces
    • Political-Military Relations
    • Military Representation in the Party
    • Party Control in the Armed Forces
  • Military Economics
    • Defense Spending
    • Military Industries and Production
    • Military Technology
  • Uniforms and Rank Insignia
  • Military Manpower
    • Premilitary Training
    • Conscripts
      • Life in the Soviet Armed Forces
      • Noncommissioned Officers
      • National Minorities in the Armed Forces
      • Women in the Armed Forces
    • Officers
    • Reserves and Wartime Mobilization

• Chapter 19 - Internal Security (Amy W. Knight)
  • Predecessors of the Committee for State Security and the Ministry Internal Affairs
    • The Tsarist Period
    • Soviet Predecessor Organizations, 1917-54
  • The Security Apparatus and Kremlin Politics
    • Khrushchev Period
    • After Khrushchev
    • Gorbachev Era
  • Organization of the Committee for State Security
    • Structure
    • Functions and Internal Organization
    • Party Control
    • Personnel
  • Domestic Security and the Committee for State Security
    • Legal Prerogatives
    • Policy
    • Special Departments in the Armed Forces
  • The Foreign Intelligence Role of the Committee for State Security
    • Organization
    • Intelligence and Counterintelligence
    • Active Measures
    • Influence on Foreign Policy
  • The Ministry of Internal Affairs
    • Functions and Organization
    • Leadership
    • Control by the Party
  • The Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Judicial Organs, and Non-Political Crime
    • Socialist Legality
    • The Procuracy
    • Military Justice
    • The Judiciary and the Legal Profession
    • Legal Codes and Abuses of the System
    • Nonpolitical Crime and Punishment
  • Internal Security Troops
    • Border Troops of the Committee for State Security
    • Security Troops of the Committee for State Security
    • Internal Troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs

• Appendices
  • Appendix B. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Malinda K. Goodrich)
  • Appendix C. The Warsaw Pact (Karl Wheeler Soper)
• Bibliography
• Glossary