Skip navigation
A service of the U.S. National Library of Medicine
From the National Institutes of HealthNational Institutes of Health

Beta-carotene


What is it?

Beta-carotene is one of a group of red, orange, and yellow pigments called carotenoids. Beta-carotene and other carotenoids provide approximately 50% of the vitamin A needed in the American diet. Beta-carotene can be found in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. It can also be made in a laboratory.

Beta-carotene is used to decrease asthma symptoms caused by exercise; to prevent certain cancers, heart disease, cataracts, and age related macular degeneration (AMD); and to treat AIDS, alcoholism, Alzheimer’s disease, depression, epilepsy, headache, heartburn, high blood pressure, infertility, Parkinson’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, schizophrenia, and skin disorders including psoriasis and vitiligo.

Beta-carotene is also in used in malnourished (underfed) women to reduce the chance of death and night blindness during pregnancy, as well as diarrhea and fever after giving birth.

Some people who sunburn easily, including those with an inherited disease called erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP), use beta-carotene to reduce the risk of sunburn.

There are many authorities – including the American Heart Association, the American Cancer Society, the World Cancer Research Institute in association with the American Institute for Cancer Research, and the World Health Organization’s International Agency for Research on Cancer – that recommend getting beta-carotene and other antioxidants from food instead of supplements, at least until research finds out whether supplements offer the same benefits. Eating 5 servings of fruits and vegetables daily provides 6-8 mg of beta-carotene.

How effective is it?

Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database rates effectiveness based on scientific evidence according to the following scale: Effective, Likely Effective, Possibly Effective, Possibly Ineffective, Likely Ineffective, Ineffective, and Insufficient Evidence to Rate.

The effectiveness ratings for BETA-CAROTENE are as follows:

Effective for...

  • Treating sun sensitivity in people who have a form of inherited blood disorder called “erythropoietic protoporphyria.”

Possibly effective for...

  • Reducing the risk of breast cancer in women before menopause when fruits and vegetables containing beta-carotene are consumed. Beta-carotene seems to be especially effective for women who are at high risk of getting breast cancer, including those with a family history and those who use alcohol excessively.
  • Treating an eye disease called age-related macular degeneration (AMD) when used with other medicines. Taking 15 mg of beta-carotene by mouth along with 500 mg of vitamin C, 400 IU of vitamin E, and 80 mg of elemental zinc daily, seems to help prevent vision loss and worsening of AMD in people with advanced AMD. There isn’t enough evidence to know if this combination works for people with less advanced macular disease.
  • Preventing sunburn in people who are sun sensitive. However, beta-carotene is unlikely to have much effect on sunburn risk in most people.
  • Keeping a form of arthritis called osteoarthritis from getting worse. But taking beta-carotene doesn’t seem to prevent osteoarthritis.
  • Preventing bronchitis and difficulty breathing in smokers. Beta-carotene from the diet seems to help, but beta-carotene supplements do not.
  • Reducing the risk of ovarian cancer in women after menopause.
  • Reducing the risk of pregnancy-related death, night blindness, and diarrhea and fever after delivery in underfed women.
  • Preventing asthma attacks triggered by exercise.
  • Treating a tongue disease called oral leukoplakia.
  • Improving physical performance and strength in the elderly.

Possibly ineffective for...

  • Diabetes.
  • Preventing stroke in male smokers.
  • Preventing cataracts or keeping cataracts from getting worse.
  • Preventing Alzheimer’s disease.

Likely ineffective for...

  • Preventing heart disease. A Science Advisory from the American Heart Association states that the evidence does not justify use of antioxidants such as beta-carotene for reducing the risk of heart disease.
  • Preventing cancer. Beta-carotene does not seem to prevent uterine cancer, cervical cancer, thyroid cancer, bladder cancer, skin cancers (melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma), brain cancer, and blood cancer (leukemia). However, some research suggests a combination of beta-carotene with vitamin C, vitamin E, selenium, and zinc might lower cancer rates in men, but not women. Researchers speculate that men have lower intake of dietary antioxidants and therefore might benefit more from supplements.
  • Preventing lung cancer in smokers. Taking beta-carotene actually seems to increase the risk of lung cancer in people who smoke (especially those smoking more than 20 cigarettes per day), former smokers, people exposed to asbestos, and those who use alcohol (one or more drinks per day) in addition to smoking. However, beta-carotene from food does not seem to have this adverse effect.
  • Preventing prostate cancer. Taking beta-carotene supplements does not prevent prostate cancer in most men. There is some concern that beta-carotene supplements might actually increase the risk of prostate cancer in some men. There is evidence that men who take a multivitamin more than 7 times per week and who also take a separate beta-carotene supplement have a significantly increased risk of developing advanced prostate cancer.

Insufficient evidence to rate effectiveness for...

  • Colorectal cancer. Research shows conflicting results.
  • Esophageal cancer. Taking beta-carotene supplements alone or in combination with other antioxidants such as vitamin A or vitamin E plus vitamin C doesn’t seem to reduce the risk of esophageal cancer.
  • Pancreatic cancer. Taking beta-carotene supplements alone or in combination with other antioxidants such as vitamin A or vitamin E doesn't seem to reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer.
  • Side effects from chemotherapy. Increasing beta-carotene from dietary sources seems to prevent some side effects in children undergoing chemotherapy for a blood cancer called lymphoblastic leukemia.
  • AIDS.
  • Alcoholism.
  • Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS).
  • Depression.
  • Epilepsy.
  • Stomach cancer.
  • Headaches.
  • Heartburn.
  • Hypertension.
  • Infertility.
  • Parkinson’s disease.
  • Psoriasis.
  • Rheumatoid arthritis.
  • Schizophrenia.
  • Other conditions.
More evidence is needed to rate beta-carotene for these uses.

How does it work?

Return to top
Beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A, an essential nutrient. It has antioxidant activity, which helps to protect cells from damage.

Are there safety concerns?

Return to top
Beta-carotene is LIKELY SAFE when used for certain specific medical conditions and taken in appropriate amounts. However, beta-carotene supplements are not recommended for general use.

Beta-carotene is POSSIBLY UNSAFE in high doses, especially when taken long-term. High doses of beta-carotene can turn skin yellow or orange.

There is growing concern that taking high doses of antioxidant supplements such as beta-carotene might do more harm than good. Some research shows that taking high doses of beta-carotene supplements might increase the chance of death from all causes and possibly other serious side effects. There is also concern that taking large amounts of a multivitamin plus a separate beta-carotene supplement increases the chance of developing advanced prostate cancer in men.

Special precautions & warnings:

Pregnancy and breast-feeding: Not enough is known about the use of beta-carotene during pregnancy and breast-feeding. Stay on the safe side and avoid use.

Smoking: In people who smoke, beta-carotene supplements might increase the risk of lung and prostate cancer. Don’t take beta-carotene supplements if you smoke.

History of asbestos exposure: In people who have been exposed to asbestos, beta-carotene supplements might increase the risk of cancer. Don’t take beta-carotene supplements if you have been exposed to asbestos.

Angioplasty, a heart procedure. There is some concern that when antioxidant vitamins, including beta-carotene, are used together they might have harmful effects after angioplasty. They can interfere with healing. Don’t use beta-carotene and other antioxidant vitamins before or after angioplasty without the recommendation of your healthcare provider.

Are there interactions with medications?

Return to top

Moderate

Be cautious with this combination.

Medications used for lowering cholesterol (Statins)
Taking beta-carotene, selenium, vitamin C, and vitamin E together might decrease the effectiveness of some medications used for lowering cholesterol. It is not known if beta-carotene alone decreases the effectiveness of some medications used for lowering cholesterol.

Some medications used for lowering cholesterol include atorvastatin (Lipitor), fluvastatin (Lescol), lovastatin (Mevacor), and pravastatin (Pravachol).

Niacin
Taking beta-carotene along with vitamin E, vitamin C, and selenium might decrease some of the beneficial effects of niacin. Niacin can increase the good cholesterol. Taking beta-carotene along with these other vitamins might decrease the good cholesterol.

Are there interactions with herbs and supplements?

Return to top
There are no known interactions with herbs and supplements.

Are there interactions with foods?

Return to top
Alcohol
Drinking excessive amounts of alcohol can reduce the level of beta-carotene in the body and increase the level of another chemical called retinol. Researchers are concerned that this might increase the risk of cancer. But more research is needed to find out whether this concern is justified.

Olestra (fat substitute)
Olestra may interfere with the action of beta-carotene in the body. Olestra lowers serum beta-carotene concentrations in healthy people by 27%.

What dose is used?

Return to top
The following doses have been studied in scientific research:

BY MOUTH:
  • For erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP): dosage is based on age. For age 1 to 4, the daily dose is 60-90 mg; age 5 to 8 years, 90-120 mg; age 9 to 12 years, 120-150 mg; age 13 to 16 years, 150-180 mg; and age 16 and older, 180 mg. If people still remain too sensitive to the sun using these doses, beta-carotene can be increased by 30-60 mg per day for children under 16 years old, and up to a total of 300 mg per day for people older than age 16.
  • For preventing sunburn in sun-sensitive people: beta-carotene 25 mg orally daily.
  • For treating age-related macular degeneration (AMD): beta-carotene 15 mg plus vitamin C 500 mg, zinc oxide 80 mg, and vitamin E 400 IU daily.
The recommended daily intake of beta-carotene has not been set because there hasn’t been enough research.

Beta-carotene supplements are available in two forms. One is water-based, and the other is oil-based. Studies show that the water-based version seems to be absorbed better.

Other names

Return to top
A-Beta-Carotene, A-Bêta-Carotène, Beta Carotene, Bêta-Carotène, Bêta-Carotène Tout Trans, Beta-Caroteno, Carotenes, Carotènes, Carotenoids, Caroténoïdes, Caroténoïdes Mélangés, Mixed Carotenoids, Provitamin A, Provitamine A.

Methodology

Return to top
To learn more about how this article was written, please see the Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database methodology.methodology (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/methodology.html).

References

Return to top
To see all references for the Beta-carotene page, please go to http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/999.html.

  1. Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, et al. Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007;99:754-64.
  2. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Gluud LL, et al. Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2007;297:842-57.
  3. van Leeuwen R, Boekhoorn S, Vingerling JR, et al. Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 2005;294:3101-7.
  4. Meyer F, Galan P, Douville P, et al. Antioxidant vitamin and mineral supplementation and prostate cancer prevention in the SU.VI.MAX trial. Int J Cancer 2005;116:182-6.
  5. Kirsh VA, Hayes RB, Mayne ST, et al. Supplemental and dietary vitamin E, beta-carotene, and vitamin C intakes and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:245-54.
  6. Hercberg S, Galan P, Preziosi P, et al. The SU.VI.MAX Study: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the health effects of antioxidant vitamins and minerals. Arch Intern Med 2004;164:2335-42.
  7. Knekt P, Ritz J, Pereira MA, et al. Antioxidant vitamins and coronary heart disease risk: a pooled analysis of 9 cohorts. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:1508-20.
  8. Nesaretnam K, Radhakrishnan A, Selvaduray KR, et al. Effect of palm oil carotene on breast cancer tumorigenicity in nude mice. Lipids 2002;37:557-60.
  9. Cho E, Seddon JM, Rosner B, et al. Prospective study of intake of fruits, vegetables, vitamins, and carotenoids and risk of age-related maculopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 2004;122:883-92.
  10. Cesari M, Pahor M, Bartali B, et al. Antioxidants and physical performance in elderly persons: the Invecchiare in Chianti (InCHIANTI) study. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:289-94.
  1. Montonen J, Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Reunanen A. Dietary antioxidant intake and risk of type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27:362-6.
  2. Cook NR, Le IM, Manson JE, et al. Effects of beta-carotene supplementation on cancer incidence by baseline characteristics in the Physicians' Health Study (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2000;11:617-26.
  3. Bjelakovic G, Nikolova D, Simonetti RG, Gluud C. Antioxidant supplements for prevention of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2004;364:1219-28.
  4. Kris-Etherton PM, Lichtenstein AH, Howard BV, et al. AHA Science Advisory: Antioxidant vitamin supplements and cardiovascular disease. Circulation 2004;110:637-41.
  5. Kennedy DD, Tucker KL, Ladas ED, et al. Low antioxidant vitamin intakes are associated with increases in adverse effects of chemotherapy in children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;79:1029-36.
  6. Mathews-Roth MM. Treatment of the cutaneous porphyrias. Clin Dermatol 1998;16:295-8.
  7. Biesalski HK, Obermueller-Jevic UC. UV light, beta-carotene and human skin--beneficial and potentially harmful effects. Arch Biochem Biophys 2001;389:1-6.
  8. Food Standards Agency. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals. Available at: http://www.foodstandards.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/vitmin2003.pdf.
  9. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. Potential public health impact of age-related eye disease study results: AREDS report no. 11. Arch Ophthalmol 2003;121:1621-4.
  10. Virtamo J, Pietinen P, Huttunen JK, et al. Incidence of cancer and mortality following alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation: a postintervention follow-up. JAMA 2003;290:476-85.
  11. Darlington S, Williams G, Neale R, et al. A randomized controlled trial to assess sunscreen application and beta carotene supplementation in the prevention of solar keratoses. Arch Dermatol 2003;139:451-5.
  12. Tardif JC. Probucol and multivitamins in the prevention of restenosis after coronary angioplasty. N Engl J Med 1997;337:365-372.
  13. Levi F, Pasche C, Lucchini F, La Vecchia C. Selected micronutrients and colorectal cancer: a case-control study from the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. Eur J Cancer 2000;36:2115-9.
  14. Yeum KJ, Ahn SH, Rupp de Paiva SA, et al. Correlation between carotenoid concentrations in serum and normal breast adipose tissue of women with benign breast tumor or breast cancer. J Nutr 1998;128:1920-6.
  15. Fuller CJ, Butterfoss DN, Failla ML. Relative bioavailability of beta-carotene from supplement sources. Nutr Res 2001;21:1209-15.
  16. Erlinger TP, Guallar E, Miller ER, et al. Relationship between systemic markers of inflammation and serum beta-carotene levels. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:1903-8.
  17. Albanes D, Virtamo J, Taylor PR, et al. Effects of supplemental beta-carotene, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption on serum carotenoids in the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:366-72.
  18. Cramer DW, Kuper H, Harlow BL, Titus-Ernstoff L. Carotenoids, antioxidants and ovarian cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women. Int J Cancer 94:128-34.
  19. Kim MK, Ahn SH, Lee-Kim. Relationship of serum alpha-tocopherol, carotenoids and retinol with the risk of breast cancer. Nutr Res 2001;21:797-809.
  20. Luchsinger JA, Tang M, Shea S, Mayeux R. Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003;60:203-8.
  21. Klipstein-Grobusch K, den Breeijen JH, Grobbee DE, et al. Dietary antioxidants and peripheral arterial disease: the Rotterdam study. Am J Epidemiol 2001;154:145-9.
  22. Kumar B, Cole WC, Prasad KN. Alpha tocopheryl succinate, retinoic acid and polar carotenoids enhanced the growth-inhibitory effect of a cholesterol-lowering drug on immortalized and transformed nerve cells in culture. J Am Coll Nutr 2001;20:628-36.
  23. Prakash P, Russell RM, Krinsky NI. In vitro inhibition of proliferation of estrogen-dependent and estrogen-independent human breast cancer cells treated with carotenoids or retinoids. J Nutr 2001;131:1574-80.
  24. Hickenbottom SJ, Follett JR, Lin Y, et al. Variability in conversion of beta-carotene to vitamin A in men as measured by using a double-tracer study design. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;75:900-7.
  25. Norrish AE, Jackson RT, Sharpe SJ, Skeaff CM. Prostate cancer and dietary carotenoids. Am J Epidemiol 2000;151:119-23.
  26. Elsayed NM, Bendich A. Dietary antioxidants: potential effects on oxidative products in cigarette smoke. Nutr Res 2001;21:551-67.
  27. Keli SO, Hertog MG, Feskens EJ, Kromhout D. Dietary flavonoids, antioxidant vitamins, and incidence of stroke: the Zutphen study. Arch Intern Med 1996;156:637-42.
  28. Knekt P, Reunanen A, Jarvinen R, et al. Antioxidant vitamin intake and coronary mortality in a longitudinal population study. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:1180-9.
  29. Gey KF, Stahelin HB, Eichholzer M. Poor plasma status of carotene and vitamin C is associated with higher mortality from ischemic heart disease and stroke: Basel Prospective Study. Clin Investig 1993;71:3-6.
  30. Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1583-93.
  31. Todd S, Woodward M, Tunstall-Pedoe H, Bolton-Smith C. Dietary antioxidant vitamins and fiber in the etiology of cardiovascular disease and all-causes mortality: results from the Scottish Heart Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1999;150:1073-80.
  32. Klipstein-Grobusch K, Geleijnse JM, den Breeijen JH, et al. Dietary antioxidants and risk of myocardial infarction in the elderly: the Rotterdam Study. Am J Clin Nutr 1999;69:261-6.
  33. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E and beta carotene for age-related cataract and vision loss: AREDS report no. 9. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1439-52.
  34. Age-Related Eye Disease Study Research Group. A randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial of high-dose supplementation with vitamins C and E, beta carotene, and zinc for age-related macular degeneration and vision loss. AREDS report no. 8. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1417-36.
  35. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2002. Available at: www.nap.edu/books/0309072794/html/.
  36. Pryor WA, Stahl W, Rock CL. Beta carotene: from biochemistry to clinical trials. Nutr Rev 2000;58:39-53.
  37. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Risk factors for lung cancer and for intervention effects in CARET, the Beta-Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:1550-9.
  38. Russell RM. The vitamin A spectrum: from deficiency to toxicity. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:878-84.
  39. Christian P, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, et al. Vitamin A or beta-carotene supplementation reduces but does not eliminate maternal night blindness in Nepal. J Nutr 1998;128:1458-63.
  40. West KP Jr, Katz J, Khatry SK, et al. Double-blind cluster, randomised trial of low dose supplementation with vitamin A or beta carotene on mortality related to pregnancy in Nepal. The NNIPS-2 Study Group. BMJ 1999;318:570-5.
  41. Katz J, West KP Jr, Khatry SK, et al. Maternal low-dose vitamin A or {beta}-carotene supplementation has no effect on fetal loss and early infant mortality: a randomized, cluster trial in Nepal. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1570-6.
  42. Stahl W, Heinrich U, Jungmann H, et al. Carotenoids and carotenoids plus vitamin E protect against ultraviolet light-induced erythema in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:795-8.
  43. Roodenburg AJ, Leenen R, van het Hof KH, et al. Amount of fat in the diet affects bioavailability of lutein esters but not of alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and vitamin E in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:1187-93.
  44. Roche Laboratories, Inc. Package insert for Xenical. April 1999.
  45. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto R, et al. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration. JAMA 1994;272:1413-20.
  46. Ehrenfeld M, Levy M, Sharon P, et al. Gastrointestinal effects of long-term colchicine therapy in patients with recurrent polyserositis (Familial Mediterranean Fever). Dig Dis Sci 1982;27:723-7.
  47. Matsui MS, Rozovski SJ. Drug-nutrient interaction. Clin Ther 1982;4:423-40.
  48. Jacobson ED, Faloon WW. Malasorptive effects of neomycin in commonly used doses. JAMA 1961;175:187-90.
  49. McAlindon TE, Jacques P, Zhang Y, et al. Do antioxidant micronutrients protect against the development and progression of knee osteoarthritis? Arthritis Rheum 1996;39:648-56.
  50. Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000. Available at: http://www.nap.edu/books/0309069351/html/.
  51. Race TF, Paes IC, Faloon WW. Intestinal malabsorption induced by oral colchicine. Comparison with neomycin and cathartic agents. Am J Med Sci 1970;259:32-41.
  52. Clark JH, Russell GJ, Fitzgerald JF, et al. Serum beta-carotene, retinol, and alpha-tocopherol levels during mineral oil therapy for constipation. Am J Dis Child 1987;141:1210-2.
  53. Becker GL. The case against mineral oil. Am J Digestive Dis 1952;19:344-8.
  54. Tonstad S, Silverstein M, Aksnes L, Ose L. Low dose colestipol in adolescents with familial hypercholesterolemia. Arch Dis Child 1996;74:157-60.
  55. Knodel LC, Talbert RL. Adverse effects of hypolipidaemic drugs. Med Toxicol 1987;2:10-32.
  56. Elinder LS, Hadell K, Johansson J, et al. Probucol treatment decreases serum concentrations of diet-derived antioxidants. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995;15:1057-63.
  57. Hathcock JN. Metabolic mechanisms of drug-nutrient interactions. Fed Proc 1985;44:124-9.
  58. Slattery ML, Benson J, Curtin K, et al. Carotenoids and colon cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;71:575-82.
  59. Heinonen OP, Albanes D, Virtamo J, et al. Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: incidence and mortality in a controlled trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:440-6.
  60. The Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta Carotene Cancer Prevention Study Group. The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N Engl J Med 1994;330:1029-35.
  61. Rapola JM, Virtamo J, Ripatti S, et al. Randomised trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on incidence of major coronary events in men with previous myocardial infarction. Lancet 1997;349:1715-20.
  62. Virtamo J, Rapola JM, Ripatti S, et al. Effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of primary nonfatal myocardial infarction and fatal coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 1998;158:668-75.
  63. Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, et al. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary heart disease in men. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1450-6.
  64. Leppala JM, Virtamo J, Fogelholm R, et al. Vitamin E and Beta Carotene supplementation in high risk for stroke: a subgroup analysis of the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study. Arch Neurol 2000;57:1503-9.
  65. Blot WJ, Li JY, Taylor PR. Nutritional intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993;85:1483-92.
  66. Greenberg ER, Baron JA, Karagas MR, et al. Mortality associated with low plasma concentration of beta carotene and the effect of oral supplementation. JAMA 1996;275:699-703.
  67. Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Manson JE, et al. Lack of effect of long-term supplementation with beta-carotene on the incidence of malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1145-9.
  68. Omenn GS, Goodman GE, Thornquist MD, et al. Effects of a combination of beta-carotene and vitamin A on lung cancer and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1150-5.
  69. Patrick L. Beta-carotene: the controversy continues. Alt Med Rev 2000;5:530-45.
  70. Green A, Williams G, Neale R, et al. Daily sunscreen applications and beta-carotene supplementation in prevention of basal-cell and squamous-cell carcinomas of the skin: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 1999;354:723-9.
  71. Alberg AJ, Chen JC, Zhao H, et al. Household exposure to passive cigarette smoking and serum micronutrient concentrations. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1576-82.
  72. van der Vliet A. Cigarettes, cancer and the carotenoids: a continuing, unresolved antioxidant paradox. Am J Clin Nutr 2000;72:1421-3.
  73. Albanes D, Heinonen OP, Taylor PR, et al. Alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements and lung cancer incidence in the alpha-tocopherol, beta-carotene cancer prevention study: effects of baseline characteristics and study compliance. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:1560-70.
  74. Christian P, West KP, Khatry SK, et al. Vitamin A or beta-carotene supplementation reduces symptoms of illness in pregnant and lactating Nepali women. J Nutr 2000;130:2675-82.
  75. Rautalahti M, Virtamo J, Haukka J, et al. The effect of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on COPD symptoms. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997;156:1447-52.
  76. Correa P, Fontham ETH, Bravo JC, et al. Chemoprevention of gastric dysplasia: randomized trial of antioxidant supplements and anti-Helicobacter pylori therapy. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:1881-8.
  77. Giovannucci E, Ascherio A, Rimm EB, et al. Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995;87:1767-76.
  78. Koonsvitsky BP, Berry DA, et al. Olestra affects serum concentrations of alpha-tocopherol and carotenoids but not vitamin D or vitamin K status in free-living subjects. J Nutr 1997;127:1636S-45S.
  79. Neuman I, Nahum H, Ben-Amotz A. Prevention of exercise-induced asthma by a natural isomer mixture of beta-carotene. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 1999;82:549-53.
  80. Cook NR, Stampfer MJ, Ma J, et al. Beta-carotene supplementation for patients with low baseline levels and decreased risks of total and prostate carcinoma. Cancer 1999;86:1783-92.
  81. Garewal HS, Katz RV, Meyskens F, et al. Beta-carotene produces sustained remissions in patients with oral leukoplakia: results of a multicenter prospective trial. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1999;125:1305-10.
  82. Cooper DA, Eldridge AL, Peters JC. Dietary carotenoids and lung cancer: a review of recent research. Nutr Rev 1999;57:133-45.
  83. Cooper DA, Eldridge AL, Peters JC. Dietary carotenoids and certain cancers, heart disease, and age-related macular degeneration: a review of recent research. Nutr Rev 1999;57:201-14.
  84. Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, et al. Beta-carotene supplementation and incidence of cancer and cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:2102-6.
  85. Zhang S, Hunter DJ, Forman MR, et al. Dietary carotenoids and vitamins A, C, and E and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999;91:547-56.
  86. Tribble DL. AHA Science Advisory. Antioxidant consumption and risk of coronary heart disease: emphasis on vitamin C, vitamin E, and beta-carotene: A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 1999;99:591-5.
  87. Leppala JM, Virtamo J, Fogelholm R, et al. Controlled trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplements on stroke incidence and mortality in male smokers. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2000;20:230-5.
  88. Frieling UM, Schaumberg DA, Kupper TS, et al. A randomized, 12-year primary-prevention trial of beta carotene supplementation for nonmelanoma skin cancer in the physicians' health study. Arch Dermatol 2000;136:179-84.
  89. Daviglus ML, Dyer AR, Persky V, et al. Dietary beta-carotene, vitamin C, and risk of prostate cancer: results from the Western Electric Study. Epidemiology 1996;7:472-7.
  90. Giuliano AR, Gapstur S. Can cervical dysplasia and cancer be prevented with nutrients? Nutr Rev 1998;56:9-16.
  91. Omenn GS. Chemoprevention of lung cancer: the rise and demise of beta-carotene. Annu Rev Public Health 1998;19:73-99.
  92. Tang G, Serfaty-Lacrosniere C, Camilo ME, et al. Gastric acidity influences the blood response to a beta-carotene dose in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;64:622-6.
Show more references
Show fewer references
Last reviewed - 07/19/2011

Browse Herbs & Supplements



Page last updated: 06 December 2012